John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) je znám díky své politické filosofii, utilitarismu a empiricismu, jeho význam a vliv je ovšem daleko hlubší (viz SEP). Jeho System of Logic: Ratiocinative and Inductive, vydán poprvé r. 1843 a v páté edici r. 1862, je podnes zmiňován např. v souvislosti s debatou o vlastních jménech (zda mají význam či nikoli) a včera jsme si uvedli Kahnovu tezi, podle níž od Milla pochází i moderní Frege-Russelova dichotomická (příp. kvadratomická) interpretace slovesné spony 'je'.
System of Logic s podtitulem Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evidence and the Methods of Scientific Investigation je zajímavé dílo samo o sobě. Skládá se z 6 knih ve dvou svazcích. Jeden z hlavních rozdílů oproti moderním učebnicím logiky je to, že zahrnuje témata nejen formální, ale i materiální logiky (oproti scholastickým učebnicím ovšem Mill hájí důležitost rozvoje induktivní logiky; zdá se, že např. proti Richardu Whatelymu). Mill v přemluvě říká, že své dílo nepovažuje za originální ve svých částech, ale v tom, že je to údajně první souhrnný přehled nejnovějších poznatků o operacích intelektu:
"This book makes no pretence of giving to the world a new theory of the intellectual operations. Its claim to attention ... is grounded on the fact that it is an attempt ... to embody and systematize, the best ideas which have been either promulgated on its subject by speculative writers, or confomed to by accurate thinkers in the scientific inquiries." p. iii
Abychom si uvědomili šíři Millova podujetí, uveďme si jeho obsah (pouze u první knihy i s rozepsáním jednotlivých paragrafů):
VOLUME I
Preface (to the First Edition, the Third, the Fourth, and the Fifth)
Introduction
§1. A definition at the commencement of a subject must be provisional
§2. Is logic the art and science of reasoning?
§3. Or the art and science of the pursuit of truth?
§4. Logic is concerned with inferences, not with intuitive truths
§5. Relation of logic to other sciences
§6. Its utility, how shown
§7. Definition of logic stated and illustrated
Book I: Of Names and Propositions
Ch. 1: Of the necessity of commencing with an Analysis of Language
§1. Theory of names, why a necessary part of logic
§2. First step in the analysis of Propositions
§3. Names must be studied before Things
Ch. 2: Of Names
§1. Names are names of things, not of our ideas
§2. Words which are not names, but parts of names
§3. General and Singular names
§4. Concrete and Abstract
§5. Connotative and Non-connotative
§6. Positive and Negative
§7. Relative and Absolute
§8. Univocal and Aequivocal
Ch. 3: Of the Things denoted by Names
§1. Necessity of an enumeration of Nameable Things. The Categories of Aristotle
§2. Ambiguity of the most general names
§3. Feelings, or states of consciousness
§4. Feelings must be distinguished from the physical antecedents. Perceptions
§5. Volitions, and Actions
§6. Substance and Attribute
§7. Body
§8. Mind
§9. Qualities
§10. Relations
§11. Resemblance
§12. Quantity
§13. All attributes of bodies are grounded on states of consciousness
§14. So also all attributes of ming
§15. Recapitulation
Ch. 4: Of Propositions
§1. Nature and office of the copula
§2. Affirmative and Negative propositions
§3. Simple and Complex
§4. Universal, Particular, and Singular
Ch. 5: Of the Import of Propositions
§1. Doctrine that a proposition is the expression of a relation between two ideas
§2. Doctrine that it is the expression of a relation between the meanings of two names
§3. Doctrine that it consists in referring to something to, or expluding something from, a class
§4. What it really is
§5. It asserts (or denies) a sequence, a coexistence, a simple existence, a causation
§6. - or a resemblance
§7. Propositions of which the terms are abstract
Ch. 6: Of Propositions merely Verbal
§1. Essential and Accidental propositions
§2. All essential propositions are identical propositions
§3. Individuals have no essences
§4. Real propositions, how distinguished from verbal
§5. Two modes of representing the import of a Real proposition
Ch. 7: Of the Nature of Classification, and the Five Predicables
§1. Classification, how connected with Naming
§2. The Predicables
§3. Genus and Species
§4. Kinds have a real existence in nature
§5. Differentia
§6. Differentiae for general purposes, and differentiae for special or technical purposes
§7. Proprium
§8. Accidens
Ch. 8: Of Definition
§1. A definition
§2. Every name can be defined, whose meaning is susceptible of analysis
§3. Complete, how distinguished from incomplete definitions
§4. - and from descriptions
§5. What are called definitions of Things, are definitions of Names with an implied assumption of the existence of Things corresponding to them
§6. - even when such things do not in reality exist
§7. Definitions, though of names only, must be grounded on knowledge of the corresponding Things
Book II: Of Reasoning
Ch. 1: Of Inferences, or Reasoning, in general
Ch. 2: Of Ratiocination, or Syllogism
Ch. 3: Of the Function, and Logical Value, of the Syllogism
Ch. 4: Of Trains of Reasoning, and Deductive Sciences
Ch. 5: Of Demonstration, and Necessary Truths
Ch. 6: The same Subject continued
Ch. 7: Examination of some Opinions opposed to the preceding doctrines
Book III: Of Induction
Ch. 1: Preliminary Observations on Induction in general
Ch. 2: Of Induction properly so called
Ch. 3: On the Ground of Induction
Ch. 4: Of Laws of Nature
Ch. 5: Of the Laws of Universal Causation
Ch. 6: Of the Composition of Causes
Ch. 7: Of Observation and Experiment
Ch. 8: Of the Four Methods of Experimental Inquiry
Ch. 9: Miscellaneous Examples of the Four Methods
Ch. 10: Of Plurality of Causes; and of the Intermixture of Effects
Ch. 11: Of the Deductive Method
Ch. 12: Of the Explanation of Laws of Nature
Ch. 13: Miscellaneous Examples of the Explanation of the Laws of Nature
VOLUME II
Book III (continued)
Ch. 14: On the Limits to the Explanation of Laws of Nature; and of Hypotheses
Ch. 15: Of Progressive Effects; and of the Continued Action of Causes
Ch. 16: Of Empirical Laws
Ch. 17: Of Chance, and Its Elimination
Ch. 18: Of the Calculation of Chances
Ch. 19: Of the Extension of Derivative Laws to Adjacent Cases
Ch. 20: Of Analogy
Ch. 21: Of the Evidence of the Law of Universal Causation
Ch. 22: OF the Uniformities of Coexistence not dependent on Causation
Ch. 23: Of Approximate Generalizations, and Probable Evidence
Ch. 24: Of the Remaining Laws of Nature
Ch. 25: Of the Grounds of Disbelief
Book IV: Of Operations subsidiary to Induction
Ch. 1: Of Observation and Description
Ch. 2: Of Abstraction, or the Formation of Conceptions
Ch. 3: Of Naming, as subsidiary to Induction
Ch. 4: Of the Requisites of a Philosophical Language; and the Principle of Definition
Ch. 5: On the Natural History of the Variations in the Meaning of Terms
Ch. 6: The Principles of a Philosophical Language further considered
Ch. 7: Of Classification, as subsidiary to Induction
Ch. 8: Of Classification by Series
Book V: Of Fallacies
Ch. 1: Of Fallacies in general
Ch. 2: Classification of Fallacies
Ch. 3: Fallacies of Simple Inspection or a priori Fallacies
Ch. 4: Fallacies of Observation
Ch. 5: Fallacies of Generalization
Ch. 6: Fallacies of Ratiocination
Ch. 7: Fallacies of Confusion
Book VI: On the Logic of the Moral Sciences
Ch. 1: Introductory remarks
Ch. 2: Of Liberty and Necessity
Ch. 3: That there is, or may be, a Science of Human Nature
Ch. 4: Of the Laws of Mind
Ch. 5: Of Ethology, or the Science of the Formation of Character
Ch. 6: General Considerations on the Social Sciences
Ch. 7: Of the Chemical, or Experimental, Method in the Social Sciences
Ch. 8: Of the Geometrical, or Abstract Method
Ch. 9: Of the Physical, or Concrete Deductive Method
Ch. 10: Of the Inverse Deduction, or Historical Method
Ch. 11: Additional Elucidations of the Science of History
Ch. 12: Of the Logic of Practices, or Art; including Morality and Policy
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